From: Development of foraging skills in two orangutan populations: needing to learn or needing to grow?
Nr | Processing steps | Food item types | Examples |
---|---|---|---|
0 | Pick | Fruits and flowers where everything is eaten | Lunuk (Ficus sp.; T), Tapuhut Putih (Syzigium sp.; T), Nyatoh Puntik (Palaquium pseudorostrum; T), Resak Ubar (Brackenridgea palustris Bartell; S), Tapis Batu (Garcinia sp.; S) |
1 | a) Pick, bite off | a) Fruits and flowers where a small outer part is bitten off after picking, discarded, and the remaining parts are eaten | a) Medang Baru (Litsea gracilipes Hook f.; S), Nyatoh undus buah merah (Palaquium ridleyi; T), Katiau (Madhuca motleyana; T), Mangkinang Blawau (Elaeocarpus sp.; T) |
b) Pick, drop | b) Fruits and flowers where only the sap is ingested and all other parts are discarded after chewing | b) Rewui (Microcos sp.; T), Piais (Nephelium mangayi; T), Tampang (Artocarpus dadak; T) | |
2 | a) Pick, peel, spit out | a) Fruits where the pulp is eaten while the skin and the seed are discarded | a) Puwin (Sandoricum beccarianum Baill.; S), Papung (Sandoricum borneense; T) |
b) Pick, bite in half, scrape flesh out | b) Hard-shell fruits where pulp and seeds are eaten but the empty pod is discarded | b)Malaka (Tetramerista glabra; S), Lewang (Pouteria cf malaccensis; T) | |
c) Pick, turn repeatedly in mouth, drop seed and skin layers | c) Fruits with edible flesh tightly attached to an inedible seed and thin skin | c) Enyak Beruk (Syzygium sp.; T), Nyatoh undus buah besar (Palaquium cochlearifolium; T), Tantimun unripe (Tetrameristra glabra; T) | |
d) Pick, pop pod open, extract seed | d) Fruit pods with an edible seed enclosed | d) Ubar (Horsfieldia crassifolia; S), Akar Kamunda (Leucomphalos callicarpus; T) | |
3 | a) Pick, bite in half, scrape flesh out, spit out | a) Hard shell fruits where the pulp and seeds are eaten but the empty pod and seeds are discarded | a) Malaka unripe (Tetramerista glabra; S), Karandau Putih (Blumeodendron kurzii; T), Tutup Kabali (Diospyros pseudo-malabarica; T) |
b) Pick, peel, bite away flesh, remove skin around seed | b) Fruits where the skin around the seed is eaten after removing the inedible skin and flesh | b) Manga Hutan (Mangifera gracilipes Hook f.; S) | |
c) Pick, pop pod open, extract seed, pop seed open | c) Fruit pods with a seed enclosed; only the internal part of the seed is eaten while the rest is discarded | c) Sepang (Sterculia sp.; S) | |
d) Collect substrate, scratch or bite open, suck | d) Insects embedded in wood or other substrate | d) Ants (Formicidae; T + S), Termites (Isoptera; T + S) | |
 | e) Bite piece of bark loose, rip or strip it off, scrape inner bark off | e) Inner bark (i.e. i.e., cambium/phloem) | e) Maruang (Myristica lowiana; T), Pantung (Dyera lowii; T), Resak Payo (Dialium patens Backer.; S) |
4 | a) Pick, bite tip off, pull string off of pod to open it, turn pod open, extract seed | a) Bean-like fruits with inedible skin but edible seeds | a) Basong (Alstonia spatulata BI.; S) |
b) Pick, pop pod open, extract seed, pop seed open, extract and spit out skin around seed | b) Fruit pods with a seed enclosed; only the internal part of the seed is eaten while the inedible seed skin is discarded | b) Sepang unripe (Sterculia sp.; S) | |
 | c) Break dead twig off, examine, bite appart, suck | c) Ants hidden in hollow twigs | c) Ants (Formicidae; S) |
5 | a + b) Break stick off, peel (optional), chew (optional), insert into tree hole/ nest extract insects or insect product, collect from tool tip | Tool use: a) tree hole b) insect nests | a) Sweat bees (Stingless bees: Halictidae spp.; S) b) Ants (Formicidae; S), Termites (Isoptera; S), Bees (Apidae spp.; S) |
c) Break fruit off, break stick off, peel (optional), chew (optional), insert into tree fruit, extract seed, collect from tool tip, spit out seed skin | c) fruits | c) Cemenang (Neesia aquatica; S) |